{"id":1446586,"date":"2021-07-19T09:24:38","date_gmt":"2021-07-19T07:24:38","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/staging-wp-int.laboklin.com\/selected-infectious-diseases-in-rabbits-what-can-be-done-what-is-important\/"},"modified":"2024-07-24T11:33:00","modified_gmt":"2024-07-24T09:33:00","slug":"selected-infectious-diseases-in-rabbits-what-is-feasible-what-is-important","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/laboklin.com\/fi\/selected-infectious-diseases-in-rabbits-what-is-feasible-what-is-important\/","title":{"rendered":"Selected infectious diseases in rabbits – what is feasible, what is important?"},"content":{"rendered":"

[vc_row][vc_column][vc_column_text]Diagnosing infectious diseases in rabbits is not always easy. For one thing, rabbits show clinical signs rather late and for another, there is often a time delay before they are presented to the veterinarian. Especially the diagnostic workup of infectious diseases with non-specific signs is a challenge for the practitioner. The first step is a detailed clinical history. Here, it is necessary to ask about how the animal is kept (individually or in a group), its age, vaccination status and any unusual occurrences. A thorough clinical examination and a general blood test are just as essential as the laboratory diagnosis of the infection itself. Sample material and detection methods depend on the suspected infection.<\/p>\n

Below, some selected infectious diseases with non-specific, respiratory and\/or mainly gastrointestinal signs are described in more detail. For the sake of clarity, the most important facts are presented in tabular form.<\/p>\n

Infections with non-specific signs<\/h2>\n

In patients with non-specific signs such as apathy, lethargy and anorexia or in cases of sudden death, it is often difficult to associate them directly with a specific infectious agent. Common lethal infectious diseases in this category are rabbit haemorrhagic disease (RHD) and tularaemia.<\/p>\n

Tularemia<\/strong><\/p>\n

Even though tularaemia is rare, recent cases in Germany and its zoonotic potential keep putting it in the spotlight again and again.
\nTularaemia, also called \u201crabbit fever\u201d, is a notifiable bacterial zoonosis (causative agent Francisella tularensis). The main reservoir in Germany are European hares. Yet, rabbits, rodents, squirrels and wild ruminants can also be infected.<\/p>\n

Despite its low incidence in humans (17 \u2013 72 cases per year in Germany) [1]), tularaemia is also notifiable in humans (\u00a7 7 par. 1 German Infection Protection Act) and is considered an occupational disease of hunters and persons who trade in hares or process them into food products [1]. Because of the low infectious dose of 10 \u2013 50 (!) pathogens, the severe course of the disease in some cases and good chances of recovery if treatment is started early in humans, detection should be performed soon if there is any suspicion. Infection of humans occurs via the oronasal route, the conjunctiva or via lesions of the skin or the mucous membrane. Sources are evisceration of carcasses, contaminated, insufficiently heated food, contaminated water, aerosols as well as bites\/stings of arthropods (ticks, mosquitoes, horseflies).
\nTypical clinical symptoms in humans include: non-specific, flu-like symptoms, skin ulcerations, swollen and suppurative lymph nodes, fever, conjunctivitis and pneumonia. Aminoglycosides, fluoroquinolones, tetracyclines, chloramphenicol or rifampicin are recommended for treatment [2]. Prophylaxis in humans includes: avoiding unprotected contact with wild animals, maintaining occupational hygiene when handling sick or dead wild animals and game, only eating game dishes which are well cooked.<\/p>\n

Table 1: <\/strong>Fact sheet tularaemia in rabbits and hares [1, 3 \u2013 5]<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
Tularaemia<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/td>\nData and facts<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Causative agent<\/strong><\/td>\n\u2022 Francisella<\/em> tularensis<\/em>, family Francisellaceae<\/em> (y-proteobacteria)
\n\u2022 gram-negative, non-motile, pleomorphic bacillus
\n\u2022 host range: mainly hares (reservoir: rodents and others); Zoonosis! Notifiable!<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Infection<\/strong><\/td>\nincubation period: 3 \u2013 5 (14) days [2, 3]
\n\u2022 biting insects, ticks<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Shedding<\/strong><\/td>\n\u2022 secretions and excretions
\n\u2022\u00a0 vector: ticks (can host for months, pathogen multiplication and transovarial transmission [4]), horseflies, mosquitoes<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Clinical<\/strong> picture<\/strong><\/td>\nmild \u2013 lethal
\n<\/u>\u2022\u00a0 acute course: apathy, fever, tachypnoea, ruffled fur, loss of shyness, swollen lymph nodes, diarrhoea, vomiting, dyspnoea, sepsis [1]
\n\u2022\u00a0 chronic course: emaciation, spleen abscesses, liver abscesses [5]<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Course<\/strong><\/td>\n\u2022 mild to severe (lethal), death usually after 2 \u2013 13 d due to sepsis<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Diagnosis<\/strong><\/td>\n\u2022 suspicion: clinical picture and history: contact to the \u201cwild animal\u201d
\n\u2022 direct pathogen detection by PCR: <\/strong>EDTA blood, swab, lymph nodes, spleen
\n\u2022 pathological examination<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Treatment<\/strong><\/td>\nnone, killing!<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Prophylaxis<\/strong><\/td>\n\u2022 high tenacity (0 \u2013 10 \u00b0C: weeks, < 0 \u00b0C: months)
\n\u2022 easy to kill with bactericidal disinfectants (RKI list, VAH list)
\n\u2022 there is no vaccine approved in Europe<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

 <\/p>\n

Infections with respiratory signs<\/h2>\n

Respiratory signs, such as sneezing, coughing, nasal and ocular discharge and, above all, dyspnoea, occur when there are disorders in the upper and\/or lower respiratory tract and inflammatory changes in the non-respiratory area that impair gas exchange. The causes are manifold.<\/p>\n

Apart from cardiological, traumatic, degenerative and\/or neoplastic changes, infections are the most frequent cause.<\/p>\n

Snuffles (Rhinitis contagiosa cuniculi)<\/strong><\/p>\n

Snuffles is one of the most common reasons why rabbits are presented in practice.<\/p>\n

\u201cSnuffles\u201d is a globally spread, ageindependent, predominantly bacterial mixed infection of the upper and sometimes lower respiratory tract. Many rabbits are asymptomatic carriers. In times of immunosuppression, triggered by stress or other underlying diseases, it may become clinically apparent. In addition to changes in husbandry and inadequate housing conditions, breed-related factors such as brachycephaly can also lead to an increased incidence [6].
\nPasteurella (P.) multocida and Bordetella (B.) bronchiseptica<\/em>, for example, are considered to be co-pathogens of snuffles but, just like mycoplasmas [7, 8], are also often found in the upper respiratory tract of healthy rabbits [16]. Infections with P. multocida <\/em>typically cause rhinitis with mucopurulent nasal discharge, but can also manifest as otitis, conjunctivitis, pneumonia, abscesses, genital infections and septicaemia [9]. Because of their wide host range, both P. multocida <\/em>and B. bronchiseptica <\/em>are said to have a certain zoonotic potential and thus pose some risk to immunocompromised people or children [10, 11].<\/p>\n

Table 2:<\/strong> Fact sheet snuffles [6 \u2013 7, 12 \u2013 13]<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
Snuffles<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/td>\nData and facts<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Causative agent<\/strong><\/td>\nmanifold, depending on stock and husbandry:
\n\u2022\u00a0 Hein et al. 2021: 32% Pasteurellaceae<\/em>, 28% Enterobacteriaceae<\/em>, 13% Pseudomonaceae<\/em>, 12% Staphylococcaceae <\/em>[12]
\n\u2022\u00a0 Villa et al. 2001: 43% Mycoplasma <\/em>spp., 39% Bordetella bronchiseptica<\/em>, 14% Pasteurella <\/em>multocida<\/em>, 14% Chlamydia <\/em>spp., 10% Staphylococcus aureus<\/em>, 6% Escherichia coli <\/em>[7]
\n\u2022\u00a0 Rougier et al. 2006: 55% Pasteurella multocida<\/em>, 52% Bordetella bronchiseptica<\/em>, 28% Pseudomonas spp.<\/em>, 17% Staphylococcus spp. <\/em>[13]<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Infection<\/strong><\/td>\n\u2022 oronasal, airborne<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Shedding<\/strong><\/td>\n\u2022 respiratory secretions<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Clinical<\/strong> picture<\/strong><\/td>\n\u2022\u00a0 uni- or bilateral nasal stridor; sneezing; watery, later mucopurulent nasal discharge; sticky front paws; varying degrees of dyspnoea
\n\u2022\u00a0 imparied drainage and ascending infections \u2192 conjunctivitis, otitis media\/interna partly with vestibular syndrome [14]; encephalitis
\n\u2022\u00a0 severe courses \u2192 pneumonia and sepsis<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Course<\/strong><\/td>\n\u2022 mild to severe depending on the pathogen<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Diagnosis<\/strong><\/td>\n\u2022\u00a0 nasal lavage sample
\n–\u00a0 from the deeper parts of the upper respiratory tract (to avoid contamination with intestinal\/ environmental pathogens)
\n–\u00a0 clean the rhinarium with an alcohol-soaked swab
\n– lavage sample collection with physiological saline solution using a 2- to 3-ml syringe and attached intravenous cannula
\n–\u00a0 lavage sample of the nasolacrimal duct in case of dacryocystitis
\n\u2022\u00a0 bacteriological examination: <\/strong>lavage sample\/swab in tube with medium
\n\u2022\u00a0 PCR <\/strong>(Mycoplasma spp.<\/em>): lavage sample in sterile screw cap tube without medium<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Treatment<\/strong><\/td>\n\u2022 depending on pathogen\/antibiogram, mucolysis, immunostimulation<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Prophylaxis<\/strong><\/td>\n\u2022\u00a0 improving husbandry and housing conditions (excessively dry air due to heating in winter, draughts, lack of hygiene) [6]<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

 <\/p>\n

Infections with gastrointestinal signs<\/h2>\n

Diarrhoea is a common problem in rabbits. In addition to dietary causes, it often results from infections with endoparasites. Apart from clinical history and clinical examination, faecal examination is indispensable for workup!<\/p>\n

Coccidiosis<\/strong><\/p>\n

Coccidiosis is an infection caused by protozoa which is associated, to some extent, with high mortality rates, especially in young animals (see Table 3).<\/p>\n

Table 3:<\/strong> Fact sheet coccidiosis [15, 16]<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
Snuffles<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/td>\nData and facts<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Causative agent<\/strong><\/td>\n\u2022\u00a0 genus Eimeria<\/em> (E.)<\/em>, protozoa
\n\u2022\u00a0 intestinal coccidiosis: more than 25 different species of Eimeria<\/em>, especially E<\/em>. intestinalis, E. magna, E. media, E. perforans <\/em>[15, 16]
\n\u2022\u00a0 hepatic\/bile duct coccidiosis: Eimeria stiedai
\n<\/em>\u2022\u00a0 host-specific and non-specific species<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Infection<\/strong><\/td>\n\u2022 peroral intake of oocysts (contaminated water, food)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Shedding<\/strong><\/td>\n\u2022 enteral (intracelluar proliferation in intestinal mucosa)
\n\u2022 adult animals often chronic carriers for months<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Clinical<\/strong> picture<\/strong><\/td>\n\u2022\u00a0 intestinal coccidiosis: mainly caecal tympany; watery, foul-smelling diarrhoea; inappetence; apathy [15]
\n\u2022\u00a0 bile duct coccidiosis: hepatopathy, fatigue, reduced food intake, diarrhoea or constipation, ascites, icterus<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Course<\/strong><\/td>\n\u2022\u00a0 epidemic, high mortality (especially young animals), depending on infectious dose, pathogenicity and individual constitution<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Diagnosis<\/strong><\/td>\n\u2022\u00a0 faecal examination<\/strong>: microscopic (fresh, flotation)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Treatment<\/strong><\/td>\n\u2022 sulfonamides, toltrazuril (not approved for small mammals)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Prophylaxis<\/strong><\/td>\n\u2022\u00a0 oocysts remain infectious for months after sporulation in the outside world
\n\u2022\u00a0 repeated thorough cleaning and disinfection of the surrounding areas [6]<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

 <\/p>\n

Helminthiasis<\/strong><\/p>\n

Worm infestations sometimes occur in rabbits. In rabbits, particularly nematodes (roundworms\/threadworms) are relevant (see Table 4). Cestodes are rare in wild rabbits and even less common in domestic rabbits. Detection is done by microscopic faecal analysis of a fresh sample and after flotation \u2013 if trematode larvae are suspected also after sedimentation.<\/p>\n

Table 4: <\/strong>Fact sheet helminthiasis in rabbits\u00a0[15]<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
Helminthiasis<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/td>\nData and facts<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Nematodes<\/strong><\/td>\nPassalurus ambiguus <\/em><\/strong>(\u201crabbit pinworm\u201d, oxyuriasis)
\n<\/strong>\u2022\u00a0 frequent, parasitise mainly in the caecum
\n\u2022\u00a0 larvae hatch in the rectum and can then be seen at the anus and\/or on the faeces
\n\u2022\u00a0 signs <\/strong>only after severe infestation (usually asymptomatic)
\n\u2022\u00a0 diagnosis: <\/strong>tape impression from anus, eggs in faeces (fresh, flotation)
\nGraphidium strigosum <\/em><\/strong>(stomach worm), Trichostrongylus retortaeformis Strongyloides spp., Trichuris leporis
\n<\/em><\/strong>\u2022\u00a0 rare, especially in young animals when fed contaminated herbage
\n\u2022\u00a0 signs: <\/strong>apathy, inappetence, enteritis, mucous-watery diarrhoea, cachexia, subacute to chronic catarrhal inflammation of the intestine in massive infestations
\n\u2022\u00a0 diagnosis:<\/strong> flotation<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Nematodes<\/strong><\/td>\nAnaplocephalidae
\n<\/em><\/strong>\u2022\u00a0 rare in wild rabbits, very rare in domestic rabbits
\n\u2022\u00a0 intermediate host: moss mite, beetle mite ingested with the herbage
\n\u2022\u00a0 signs <\/strong>young animals: catarrhal enteritis with diarrhoea, cachexia, developmental disorders, constipation in case of severe infestation
\n\u2022\u00a0 diagnosis:<\/strong> flotation<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Trematodes<\/strong><\/td>\nFasciola hepatica <\/em><\/strong>(common liver fluke),
\n<\/strong>Dicrocoelium dendriticum <\/em><\/strong>(lancet liver fluke)
\n<\/strong>\u2022\u00a0 rarity, usually not significant
\n\u2022\u00a0 infection through herbage contaminated with metacercariae or infected ants
\n\u2022\u00a0 signs common liver fluke: <\/strong>hepatitis, cholangitis, inappetence, cachexia, icterus, oedema formation
\n\u2022\u00a0 signs lancet liver fluke: <\/strong>unnoticed, no clinical signs
\n\u2022\u00a0 diagnosis: <\/strong>combined sedimentation-flotation method, most often necropsy findings<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

 <\/p>\n

Conclusion<\/h2>\n

The importance of infectious diseases in rabbits should not be underestimated. With the knowledge about possible pathogens and the corresponding detection methods, diagnosis can be made without delay and treatment can be optimised.<\/p>\n

Jana Liebscher, Dr. Jutta Hein<\/em><\/p>\n

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Literature:<\/strong><\/h5>\n
[1] Bavarian State Office for Health and Food Safety. Tularaemia (also known as rabbit plague or rodent plague). On the Internet: www.lgl.bavaria.en\/animal_health\/animal_diseases\/bacterial_fungal_infections\/tularaemia\/index.htm; Status: 25.11.2020.[2] Robert Koch Institute (RKI). Tularemia. On the Internet: www.rki.en\/EN\/Content\/InfAZ\/T\/Tularaemia\/Tularaemia_node.html; status 25.11.2020.[3] Selbitz HJ. Bacterial diseases of the animals. In: Rolle M, Mayr A, eds. Medical microbiology, infectious diseases and epidemiology. 8. Aufl. Stuttgart: Enke; 2007: 393-558.[4] Friedrich-L\u00f6ffler-Institut. Tularemia. On the Internet: www.fli.en\/en\/institutes\/institut-fuer-bakterielle-infektionen-und-zoonosen-ibiz\/reference-laboratories\/nrl-fuer-tularaemie\/; Status 25.11.2020[5] Openagrar. Tularemia fact sheet. Online: On the Internet: www.openagrar.en\/servlets\/MCRFileNodeServlet\/openagrar_derivatives_00023755\/Steckbrief_Tularaemie_2019_10_21.pdf; Status 25.11.2020.[6] M\u00fcller K, Schall H. Rabbit. In: Gabrisch K, Zwart P. Diseases of the pets. Ed. Fehr M, Sassenburg L, Zwart P., 8. Aufl. Schl\u00fctersche: Hanover; 2015: 1-56.[7] Villa A, Gracia E, Fernandez A et al. Detection of mycoplasma in the lungs of rabbits with respiratory disease. Vet Rec 2001; 148 (25): 788-789.[8] Deeb B, Kenny GE. Characterization of Mycoplasma pulmonis. Variants isolated from rabbits I. Identification and properties of isolates. J Bacteriol 1967; 93 (4): 1416-1424.[9] Deeb BJ, Di Giacomo RF, Bernard BL et al. Pasteurella multocida and Bordetella bronchiseptica Infections in Rabbits. J Clin Mircrobiol 1990; 28 (1): 70-75.[10] Ferreira TSP, Felizardo MR, Sena de Gobbi DD et al. Virulence genes and antimicrobial resistance profile of Pasteurella multocida strains isolated from rabbits in Brazil. Scient World J 2012; Article ID 685028. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1100\/2012\/685028[11] Wang J, Sun S, Chen Y et al. Characterization of Bordetella bronchiseptica isolated from rabbits in Fujian, China. Epidemiol Infect 2020; 148: 1-5.[12] Hein J, Maier H, Meyer C. Rabbit noses – germ spectrum in general and resistance behavior of Pasteurella spp. Poster Abstract. 3. DVG small mammal theme conference, 23. -24.01.2021 online. Abstract Small animal practice 2021; 66; 312.[13] Rougier S, Galland D, Bouncer S et al. Epidemiology and susceptibility of pathogenetic bacteria responsible for upper respiratory tract infections in pet rabbits. Vet Microbiol. 2006; 115 (1-3): 192-198. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.vetmic.2006.02.003[14] Hein J. Species-specific digestive physiology and causes of diarrhea. In: Hein J, ed. Diarrheal diseases in small mammals. Hanover: Schl\u00fctersche; 2017: 33-91.[15] Beck W, Panchev N. Parasitoses of the rabbit. In: Beck W, Panchev N, eds. Practical parasitology in pets. 2. Aufl. Hanover: Schl\u00fctersche; 2013: 1-30.[16] Redrobe SP, Gakos G, Elliot SC et al. Comparsion of toltrazuril and sulphadimethoxine in the treatment of intestinal coccidiosis in pet rabbits. Vet Rec. 2010; 167 (8): 287-290.<\/strong><\/span><\/h6>\n

[\/vc_column_text][\/vc_column][\/vc_row][vc_row type=”vc_default” gap=”10″ equal_height=”yes” content_placement=”middle” css=”.vc_custom_1704972823667{margin-top: 30px !important;}”][vc_column width=”1\/6″ css=”.vc_custom_1721813531890{background-color: #e7e7e7 !important;}”][vc_icon icon_fontawesome=”fas fa-file-pdf” color=”custom” size=”xl” align=”center” css=”.vc_custom_1721813540285{margin-top: 10px !important;margin-bottom: 10px !important;padding-top: 20px !important;padding-bottom: 20px !important;}” custom_color=”#e51e1e” link=”url:https%3A%2F%2Flaboklin.com%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2023%2F03%2FLA_Juli_2021_EN_FINAL.pdf|title:LABOKLIN%20aktuell%2007.2021|target:_blank”][\/vc_column][vc_column width=”5\/6″ css=”.vc_custom_1721813552116{background-color: #e7e7e7 !important;}”][vc_column_text css=”.vc_custom_1721813559809{margin-top: 10px !important;margin-bottom: 10px !important;padding-top: 20px !important;padding-bottom: 20px !important;}”]Selected infectious diseases in rabbits – what is feasible, what is important?<\/a><\/strong>[\/vc_column_text][\/vc_column][\/vc_row]<\/p>\n<\/div>","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

Diagnosing infectious diseases in rabbits is not always easy. For one thing, rabbits show clinical signs rather late and for another, there is often a time delay before they are presented to the veterinarian.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":1394966,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_seopress_robots_primary_cat":"none","_seopress_titles_title":"","_seopress_titles_desc":"%%post_excerpt%%","_seopress_robots_index":"","footnotes":""},"categories":[221],"tags":[],"table_tags":[],"class_list":["post-1446586","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-laboklin-aktuell-2021","category-221","description-off"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/laboklin.com\/fi\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/1446586","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/laboklin.com\/fi\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/laboklin.com\/fi\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/laboklin.com\/fi\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/laboklin.com\/fi\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=1446586"}],"version-history":[{"count":14,"href":"https:\/\/laboklin.com\/fi\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/1446586\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":1514080,"href":"https:\/\/laboklin.com\/fi\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/1446586\/revisions\/1514080"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/laboklin.com\/fi\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/1394966"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/laboklin.com\/fi\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=1446586"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/laboklin.com\/fi\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=1446586"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/laboklin.com\/fi\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=1446586"},{"taxonomy":"table_tags","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/laboklin.com\/fi\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/table_tags?post=1446586"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}